At your 20s

I saw this post today and i wanted you ladies to see it and learn for it

Being in your 20s is a crucial period in a woman’s life: It’s a transitional time when a girl discovers her true self and really becomes a woman. It’s during these years that we find ourselves graduating from college, renting our own apartments, starting our careers, and building new relationships while learning what it really means to grow up. Between bills, early morning wake ups, and tighter schedules it can be easy to lose sight of the fun side of life. That said, your 20s are some of the most exciting years and for this reason I’ve compiled a list of 10 things every girl in her 20s should know to ensure we all maximize the opportunities and never forsake one moment during these special years:

1. Learn How to Manage Your Budget: Most women start taking care of their own finances at this age. Learning how to manage a budget for rent, groceries, utilities, while also setting aside a little “fun money” and a little savings can be difficult. I’ve found that tracking your monthly income and all your ancillary costs can help you better understand what you’re spending so you know what you’re able to save. There are actually several apps to help you keep track of that that (check out Mint.com). This is also a time to think ahead and start your 401K. If you work for a company that offers this type of plan, be sure to ask your HR department to help you set it up.
2. Interview Like a Boss: Your 20s are a prime time to start your career and interviewing well is a key component to that process.  Even if you don’t land a job right away, if you are a good interviewer it can make a big impact since companies will often remember you months (or even years) ahead when another position arises.  Interviews are also important for networking purposes and building relationships across the business world. The bottom line? Take advantage of every interview now as it made lead to opportunities in the future!
3. Keep Your Skin Young: While your skin might look great right now (this is what we call your “post-acne and pre-wrinkles era”), this period can determine what your skin will look like in your 30s, 40s, 50s and beyond. To keep wrinkles and damaged skin at bay, it’s important to always wear sunscreen…Yup—always! That means during winter, too. Educate yourself on SPF numbers and what they mean, and make it an everyday process to lather protection to keep your youthful glow. Another “must” is washing your face every night. Going to bed with your makeup on not only clogs pores; it dulls your complexion and can cause dryness or wrinkles. No thank you!
4. Cherish Your Friendships: These years are usually filled with a lot of dating, a lot of love, along with a lot of time mending broken hearts. It’s important to realize that guys will come and go, but a solid group of girlfriends will be there to help you through it all—forever.  Even when you do find the one you’ll spend the rest of your life with; remember that your friends will be the support system you need through the good and the bad. The lesson here? Don’t forego important friendships in lieu of a relationship… Create balance. Good friends are hard to find, and if you ask me, losing a bestie is harder than losing a guy.
5. Dress to Impress: At this point in our lives, we have fully grown into our bodies…which means there are no more excuses for trying to squeeze into that mini skirt you wore senior year of high school. It’s time to accept your body and all of its beautifully unique assets by dressing accordingly. Your 20s are a time to experiment and learn what works best for your body type. Find out what kind of jeans are the right fit for your figure, what size dress is most appropriate for your shape, and embrace what you are working with… Accepting your shape will help you look and feel your best. Plus confidence is key for any 20-something who is about to take on the world 🙂
6. Don’t Make the Same Mistake Twice: People often say that your 20s are a time to make mistakes. But what’s important about this is not the act of actually making the mistake itself, but rather learning from the lessons these mistakes teach us. Whether it’s a slip up in a relationship or at your job, don’t get down on yourself that it happened… Instead, take it as a lesson learned and promise yourself it won’t happen again.
7. Speak Up for Yourself: As you begin to take on your independence in your 20s, it’s important to learn when to stand up for yourself.  Get yourself the raise you deserve, tell your friend when she’s treating you poorly, let that barista at Starbucks know when she gave you the wrong drink. If you never say anything, nothing will ever change, and those negative things will build up. Remember that you’re a strong, beautiful and independent woman, and speaking up for yourself is important in leading the life you desire.
8. Take a Compliment: As we talked about before, confidence is the key to taking on the world as a 20-something. Part of that confidence is knowing how to take a compliment. When someone tells you you’re beautiful, accept it and say thank you (and maybe even blush a little). Accepting a compliment unveils your confidence and comfort in your own skin, which is an attractive quality for a woman… That kind of self-assuredness can do anything from land you the perfect job to the man of your dreams.
9. You Don’t Always Have to be Right: With the confidence that comes in our 20s, sometimes it’s hard to know when to set your stubbornness aside. It takes a lot of biting your tongue to learn this lesson, but you don’t always have to be right. You will come across situations where it’s incredibly hard to do, particularly when you know you’re right. But sometimes it’s best to save your relationship with that person (especially if it’s in the work place) than to hold the upper hand. Your 20s are a time to learn when it’s okay to stand up for yourself, but also understand the moments when you just need to back away.
10. Don’t Lose the Child in You:  I have to say, through all of these points, my #1 thing to remember is to never lose sight of yourself. You grow up a lot in your 20s, but you’re still young enough to have fun and bring out the little bit of kid that’s still left in you. You’ll have plenty of time to continue to grow up, settle down, have children, and worry about spending too much money. But your 20s are only a stepping-stone to that point. So go have a crazy night out with your girlfriends, get set up on a blind date, buy that expensive pair of shoes you can’t really afford, be weird and goofy, and go on adventures! These are the memories you’ll cherish when you look back on these years.

I hope these little bits of advice inspire you take on your 20s full-throttle.  Don’t hold back on all the opportunities these years will bring, and you’ll find these are some of the best times of your life. Stay strong, stay beautiful, stay confident but most importantly stay YOU.

If you are in your 20s right now (or older)… What advice would you give about these years? What do you hope to accomplish in your 20s?

Also be sure to share this post with your 20-something friends. I think it’s safe to say that we can all learn from these lessons.

Sometimes put yourself first

As women we tend to alway put people first which isnt a bad thing,but sometimes we have to put ourselves first.Imagine that you have lived all your youth pleasing people, caring for people first and neglecting yourself and body.It can cause a lot of damage to your healthSo what do you do?1)firstly try taking your mind of things that can stress you like,Thinking about someone's need ,am not saying you shouldn't but am saying just do that for a few hours and you will be surprised how well your mind can relax

 2)try taking a long walk and watching people enjoy themselves, it will help you remember good memories of less stress and you will find yourself laughing at something you remembered 

3)help people and also tell a lot of joke,it's not easy for some of us who like to feel in control at all times but you have to do it sometimes it helps

4)sometimes our children are enough for us to be happy so finding time to play with them and even doing so childish things can help like,jumping on the trampoline with them and playing run around with them,it one of the best way  reconnect with them and relieve ourselves from stress

5)value your opinions: a lot of women has low self esteem and it is very bad for our social lives, so we have to try valuing our opinion and not letting anyone tell us we are not good enough

If you want any advice on anything at all you can get me on ponuoha2@gmail.com .send me you message and i will alway have a good advice for you as a woman

Who is a strong woman

SHARENEXT 

10 Reasons Why Most Men Can’t Handle A Strong Woman

LIFESTYLE

What exactly makes a strong woman? Her struggles, sacrifices, and selflessness. A strong woman has endured pain, overcome heart-wrenching experiences, and has allowed herself to be led by forgiveness. A strong woman has swam in deep and treacherous waters and held her breath as much as possible. This type of woman is self-sufficient, independent, loving, and has no fears of showing her vulnerability. The strong woman knows that one moment you are the teacher, and the next you might be the student. So, how does a woman like this keep a man?

HERE ARE 10 REASONS WHY MOST MEN CAN’T HANDLE A STRONG WOMAN:

1. A STRONG WOMAN DOESN’T NEED A MAN TO FIGHT FOR HER.

A man needs to feel wanted. He needs to know that he is battling for the eternal love and admiration of his woman. A strong woman will show you that she loves her man, but she’s also independent and can manage on her own. The strong woman will fight for both of you, but she doesn’t need a man to fight her battles. If they have a problem, they deal with it. They don’t sit and wait, as victims, for a man to find the solution. Some men can’t handle this strength. If you choose to remain with this type of woman, be willing to walk beside her, not in front of her while pulling her to where you think she should be.

2. A STRONG WOMAN KNOWS WHAT SHE WANTS.

Strong women know what they want, how to attain it, and remember all that they had to endure to get whatever they have. A woman like this knows what she wants. If she likes a man, she will go after him. She will not wait for the man to make the first move. Strong women have tenacious personalities that can be extremely intimidating for some men. They aren’t submissive. They love wholeheartedly and also can continue exploring the world, with a man or not. It takes a self-confident man to allow this type of personality to take charge.

3. A STRONG WOMAN WILL REQUIRE HONESTY AND VULNERABILITY.

Men have a hard time opening up to difficult questions. Strong women dive right into the depth of hurt, traumas, and life-changing experiences. They require a man who can be honest and vulnerable, because they have endured so much in their lives. They need to know that their mate can be available to navigate the ocean of uncertainties and travel the edges of madness. Strong women don’t fear the past. They excavate and search for those things that make us human. The strong woman will always find a strong man to stand tall with her in the face of diversity. Men tend to avoid vulnerability because they feel weak.

4. A STRONG WOMAN IS NOT INTIMIDATED BY INTIMACY.

The strong woman will challenge a man in the most intimate of ways. She will require intimacy in all forms, from conversation to making love. She will hold nothing back. Because a strong woman is comfortable with her femininity, she will expect her man to also be open to all aspects of intimacy. She requires passion, desire and feel like she’s the one.

5. A STRONG WOMAN CAN SEE RIGHT THROUGH LIES.

Strong women are honest and expect complete trust in a relationship. She can sense lies in an instant, so don’t try to sugarcoat a white lie. Don’t give her bogus explanations. She has the ability to be a human lie detector. Being in a relationship with a strong woman requires that there is no holding back. She will never tolerate a sense of falseness and selfishness. If you can’t be with her completely, she will have no problem discarding you.

6. A STRONG WOMAN REQUIRES INTEGRITY AND CONSISTENCY.

Women who have inner strength cannot tolerate irregularity or indecisive personalities. They want to know that the man they love has integrity, respect, and is a man of his word. If they start to feel that their man is pulling away, they will react accordingly and have no problem letting him go if they feel they are being played. They want to feel like they are loved unconditionally. If they feel disrespected, they will have no issues setting that on track. The worst thing you can do to a strong woman is make her feel weak.

7. A STRONG WOMAN IS INTENSE.

A strong woman has endured extraordinary challenges and obstacles in her life. She has had to be extremely powerful. She knows she can endure anything else in her path, so this kind of intensity is often times difficult for a man to understand. It’s intimidating because of all the emotions and thoughts that come with this type of persona. She is willing to share her scars, and expects you to do the same. There are no secrets in her world.

8. A STRONG WOMAN WILL NOT WAIT FOR YOU.

This type of woman will follow you to the depth of hell if she knows you are committed to her. However, the moment you start to pull back, she will let you go. She will not wait for a man to decide if he wants her or someone better. Strong women don’t play little girly games. You are either in, or you are out. They will get hurt, lick their own wounds, and get back up ready to conquer whatever is next.

9. A STRONG WOMAN WILL LOVE YOU UNCONDITIONALLY.

The love from a strong woman is faithful. Just like mothers with their children, the strong woman will nurture and love her man fiercely. When she feels that love in return, she will do anything she can to make him feel loved. She will support him, help him, and fight for him to get what he deserves. Some men can’t handle this kind of unconditional love. They get frightened by the intensity and depth of giving. Many times it is in this stage that men flee from a strong woman. And, just as deeply as she loved you, she will also let you go. She knows her worth.

10. A STRONG WOMAN WILL SHOW YOU WHO YOU ARE.

It’s hard to accept the things we don’t like about ourselves when someone points them out. But, a strong woman will mirror those parts in her man that need addressing. She will be there to help show you how amazing and powerful you are. She will stand by you and show you worth, acceptance, and confidence. Some men cannot handle the emotional chaos that comes up with this projection. Strong woman will find strong men. The weak ones won’t make it past the first few dates.

They don’t know what to do with the honesty, strength, intelligence and independence. A strong man, most likely, was raised by a strong woman and will either deal with the dark night of the soul or leave. Strong women have no time to play games. So, if you can handle the intensity, love, honesty, and conversations, you might just be that strong man who can complement this type of woman

Ask a woman

*"Two things that have no benefit;*
1. Love without sacrifice
2. Marriage without love

*Two things that entrench love;*
1. Holiness
2. Honesty

*Two things that destroy a man;*
1. Living a sinful life
2. Lack of focus

*Two things that destroy a woman;*
1. Love for materialism
2. Imitation/comparison

*Two things that destroy friendship;*
1. Lies
2. Backbiting/distrust

*Two things that enhance charisma;*
1. Trustworthiness
2. Steadfastness in serving God

*Two things that bring about misery;*
1. Disrespect for elders
2. False accusation

*Two things that bring about happiness;*
1. Doing good deeds
2. Patience

*Two things that bring one close to God;*
1. Reading & Studying the Word of GOD
2. Righteously living on GOD's instructions

*Two things that keep the devil far from one;*
1. Be God fearing
2. Prayerfulness

*Two things that aid answers to prayers;*
1. Faith in God
2. Perseverance

*Two things that God loves;*
1. Giving
2. Winning souls

*Two reasons why I sent this message to you;*
1. Because you are God's image
2. Because God loves you

*Two things I want you to do after you have read this message;*
1. Consider this message, then
...God bless you richly..

Dealing with our kids

Disrespectful or rude behaviour in teenagers is pretty common. Although this phase will pass eventually, there are some strategies that can help you handle disrespect from your child in the meantime.

About disrespectful behaviour in teenagers 

Sometimes you might feel that interactions with your child all seem a bit like this:

You – ‘How’s that book project going?’ 
Your child – ‘Why are you checking up on me? Don’t you trust me? I always get good marks, so why ask me about it?’
You – ‘I was only asking. I just wanted to know if you’re going OK with it ...’
Your child – ‘Sure you were ... mumble, mumble, mumble.’

As a parent, you might feel hurt, worried and unsure about what’s happened when you have conversations like this. Your child used to value your interest or input, but now it seems that even the most simple conversations turn into arguments.

There are reasons for your child’s behaviour. And there’s also good news: this phase will usually end.

Disrespect: where does it come from?

Not all teenagers will be rude or disrespectful, but some disrespect is a normal part of teenage growth and development. Your child is learning to express and test out his own independent ideas, so there will be times when you disagree. Developing independence is a key part of growing up. 

Also, your child’s moods can change quickly. Because of how teenage brains develop, your child isn’t always able to quickly handle her changing feelings and reactions to everyday or unexpected things. And this can sometimes lead to over-sensitivity.

Teenagers are starting to think in a deeper way than they did a few years earlier, and they can have thoughts and feelings they’ve never had before. Some young people seem to burst into the world with a conflicting and radical view on everything. This shift to deeper thinking is a normal part of development too.

No matter how grumpy or cross your child gets, he still values time talking and connecting with you. You just might need to be a little more understanding if he’s short-tempered or changeable. It can help to remember that this phase will pass.

Handling your teen’s disrespectful behaviour

Tips for discipline

• Set clear rules about behaviour and communication. For example, you could say, ‘We speak respectfully in our family. This means we don’t call people names’. Involving your child in discussions about rules means you can later remind her that she helped make the rules, and that she agreed to them.
• Focus on your child’s behaviour and how you feel about it. Avoid any comments about your child’s personality or character. Instead of saying, ‘You’re rude’, try something like, ‘I feel hurt when you speak like that to me’. It’s OK to occasionally say clearly how you’re feeling – ‘I’m feeling furious with you just now. You’d feel the same’.
• Set and use consequences, but try not to set too many. At times, it might be appropriate to use consequences for things like rudeness, swearing or name-calling.

Tips for communication

• Stay calm. This is important if your child reacts with ‘attitude’ to a discussion. Stop, take a deep breath, and continue calmly with what you wanted to say.
• Use humour. A shared laugh can break a stalemate, bring a new perspective or lighten the tone of a conversation. Being lighthearted can also help take the heat out of a situation – but avoid mocking, ridiculing or being sarcastic.
• Ignore your child’s shrugs, raised eyes and bored looks if he’s generally behaving the way you’d like him to. 
• Sometimes teenagers are disrespectful without meaning to be rude. A useful response can be something like, ‘That comment came across as pretty offensive. Did you mean to behave rudely?’
• Use descriptive praise with your teenager for positive communication. When you have a positive interaction, point this out to your child. This lets her know you’re aware of and value her opinions.

Tips for relationships

• Be a role model. When you’re with your child, try to speak and act the way you want your child to speak and act towards you.
• If there’s a lot of tension between you and your child, another adult you know and trust, such as an aunt, uncle or family friend, might be able to support your child through this period. Involving someone like this can be a great way to ease the strain.

Things to avoid with teenage disrespect 

Arguing rarely works for parents or teenagers. When we get angry, we can say things we don’t mean. A more effective approach is to give yourself some time to calm down.

If you’re angry or in the middle of an argument, it will be hard to calmly discuss what you expect of your child. A more effective approach is to tell him that you want to talk, and agree on a time.

Being defensive is very rarely useful. Try not to take things personally.

Even though you have more life experience than your child, lecturing her about how to behave is likely to turn her off listening. If you want your child to listen to you, you might need to spend time actively listening to her.

Nagging isn’t likely to have much effect. It might increase your frustration, and your child will probably just switch off.

Sarcasm will almost certainly create resentment and increase the distance between you and your child.

When to be concerned about teenage disrespect

If your child’s attitude towards you and your family doesn’t respond to any of the strategies suggested above, it might be a warning sign that there is a deeper problem.

You might also be worried if there are changes in your child’s attitude or mood, if he withdraws from family, friends or usual activities, or if he runs away from home or stops going to school regularly.

If you’re concerned about your child’s behaviour, you could:

• consider seeking professional support – good people to start with include school counsellors, teachers and your GP 
• discuss the issue as a family, to work out ways of supporting each other
• talk to other parents and find out what they do.

Looking after yourself, especially your physical and emotional wellbeing, can help you stay calm and consistent when things get tough. Friends and family can be a great source of support, as can parents of other teenagers. You might like to connect in our online forum for parents of pre-teens or our online forum for parents of early teens.

Violence

How to help a friend who is being abused

Click the red escape button above to immediately leave this site if your abuser may see you reading it.

Here are some ways to help a friend who is being abused:

• Set up a time to talk. Try to make sure you have privacy and won't be distracted or interrupted.
• Let your friend know you're concerned about her safety. Be honest. Tell her about times when you were worried about her. Help her see that what she's going through is not right. Let her know you want to help.
• Be supportive. Listen to your friend. Keep in mind that it may be very hard for her to talk about the abuse. Tell her that she is not alone, and that people want to help.
• Offer specific help. You might say you are willing to just listen, to help her with childcare, or to provide transportation, for example.
• Don't place shame, blame, or guilt on your friend. Don't say, "You just need to leave." Instead, say something like, "I get scared thinking about what might happen to you." Tell her you understand that her situation is very difficult.
• Help her make a safety plan. Safety planning includes picking a place to go and packing important items.
• Encourage your friend to talk to someone who can help. Offer to help her find a local domestic violence agency. Offer to go with her to the agency, the police, or court.
• If your friend decides to stay, continue to be supportive. Your friend may decide to stay in the relationship, or she may leave and then go back many times. It may be hard for you to understand, but people stay in abusive relationships for many reasons. Be supportive, no matter what your friend decides to do.
• Encourage your friend to do things outside of the relationship. It's important for her to see friends and family.
• If your friend decides to leave, continue to offer support. Even though the relationship was abusive, she may feel sad and lonely once it is over. She also may need help getting services from agencies or community groups.
• Keep in mind that you can't "rescue" your friend. She has to be the one to decide it's time to get help. Support her no matter what her decision.
• Let your friend know that you will always be there no matter what.

Who is a woman

A woman is a female human; that is, of the species Homo sapiens. The term woman is usually reserved for an adult, with the term girl being the usual term for a female child or adolescent. The term woman is also sometimes used to identify a female human, regardless of age, as in phrases such as "women's rights". "Woman" may also refer to a person's gender identity.^[1] Women with typical genetic development are usually capable of giving birth from puberty until menopause.

Throughout history women have assumed or been assigned various social roles.

Etymology

The spelling of woman in English has progressed over the past millennium from wīfmann^[2] to wīmmann to wumman, and finally, the modern spelling woman.^[3] In Old English, wīfmann meant "female human", whereas wēr meant "male human". Mann or monn had a gender-neutral meaning of "human", corresponding to Modern English "person" or "someone"; however, subsequent to the Norman Conquest, man began to be used more in reference to "male human", and by the late 13th century had begun to eclipse usage of the older term wēr.^[4] The medial labial consonants f and m in wīfmann coalesced into the modern form "woman", while the initial element, which meant "female", underwent semantic narrowing to the sense of a married woman ("wife").

It is a popular misconception^[5] that the term "woman" is etymologically connected to "womb". "Womb" is actually from the Old English word wambe meaning "stomach" (modern German retains the colloquial term "Wampe" from Middle High German for "potbelly").^[6][7]

Biological symbol

The symbol for the planet Venus is the sign also used in biology for the female sex.^[8] It is a stylized representation of the goddess Venus's hand-mirror or an abstract symbol for the goddess: a circle with a small equilateral cross underneath. The Venus symbol also represented femininity, and in ancient alchemy stood for copper. Alchemists constructed the symbol from a circle (representing spirit) above an equilateral cross (representing matter).

Terminology

Further information: girl, virgin, mother, wife, goodwife, lady, maid, maiden, and widow

Womanhood is the period in a female's life after she has passed through childhood and adolescence, generally around age 18.

The word woman can be used generally, to mean any female human or specifically, to mean an adult female human as contrasted with girl. The word girl originally meant "young person of either sex" in English;^[9] it was only around the beginning of the 16th century that it came to mean specifically a female child.^[10] The term girl is sometimes used colloquially to refer to a young or unmarried woman; however, during the early 1970s feminists challenged such use because the use of the word to refer to a fully grown woman may cause offence. In particular, previously common terms such as office girl are no longer widely used. Conversely, in certain cultures which link family honor with female virginity, the word girl is still used to refer to a never-married woman; in this sense it is used in a fashion roughly analogous to the obsolete English maid or maiden. Referring to an unmarried female human as a woman may, in such a culture, imply that she is sexually experienced, which would be an insult to her family.^{[citation needed]}

There are various words used to refer to the quality of being a woman. The term "womanhood" merely means the state of being a woman, having passed the menarche; "femininity" is used to refer to a set of typical female qualities associated with a certain attitude to gender roles; "womanliness" is like "femininity", but is usually associated with a different view of gender roles; "femaleness" is a general term, but is often used as shorthand for "human femaleness"; "distaff" is an archaic adjective derived from women's conventional role as a spinner, now used only as a deliberate archaism; "muliebrity" is a neologism (derived from the Latin) meant to provide a female counterpart of "virility", but used very loosely, sometimes to mean merely "womanhood", sometimes "femininity" and sometimes even as a collective term for women.^{[citation needed]}

Menarche, the onset of menstruation, occurs on average at age 12-13. Many cultures have rites of passage to symbolize a girl's coming of age, such as confirmation in some branches of Christianity,^[11] bat mitzvah in Judaism, or even just the custom of a special celebration for a certain birthday (generally between 12 and 21), like the Quinceañera of Latin America.

History

The earliest women whose names are known through archaeology include:

• Neithhotep (c. 3200 BCE), the wife of Narmer and the first queen of ancient Egypt.^[12][13]
• Merneith (c. 3000 BCE), consort and regent of ancient Egypt during the first dynasty. She may have been ruler of Egypt in her own right.^[14][15]
• Merit-Ptah (c. 2700 BCE), also lived in Egypt and is the earliest known female physician and scientist.^[16]
• Peseshet (c. 2600 BCE), a physician in Ancient Egypt.^[17][18]
• Puabi (c. 2600 BCE), or Shubad – queen of Ur whose tomb was discovered with many expensive artifacts. Other known pre-Sargonic queens of Ur (royal wives) include Ashusikildigir, Ninbanda, and Gansamannu.^[19]
• Kugbau (circa 2,500 BCE), a taverness from Kish chosen by the Nippur priesthood to become hegemonic ruler of Sumer, and in later ages deified as "Kubaba".
• Tashlultum (c. 2400 BCE), Akkadian queen, wife of Sargon of Akkad and mother of Enheduanna.^[20][21]
• Baranamtarra (c. 2384 BCE), prominent and influential queen of Lugalanda of Lagash. Other known pre-Sargonic queens of the first Lagash dynasty include Menbara-abzu, Ashume'eren, Ninkhilisug, Dimtur, and Shagshag, and the names of several princesses are also known.
• Enheduanna (c. 2285 BCE),^[22][23] the high priestess of the temple of the Moon God in the Sumerian city-state of Ur and possibly the first known poet and first named author of either gender.^[24]

Biology and gender

The human female reproductive system

Spectral karyotype of a human female

Photograph of an adult female human, with an adult male for comparison. Note that both models have partially shaved body hair.

In terms of biology, the female sex organs are involved in the reproductive system, whereas the secondary sex characteristics are involved in nurturing children or, in some cultures, attracting a mate. The ovaries, in addition to their regulatory function producing hormones, produce female gametes called eggs which, when fertilized by male gametes (sperm), form new genetic individuals. The uterus is an organ with tissue to protect and nurture the developing fetus and muscle to expel it when giving birth. The vagina is used in copulation and birthing, although the term vagina is often colloquially and incorrectly used in the English language for the vulva or external female genitalia, which consists of (in addition to the vagina) the labia, the clitoris, and the female urethra. The breast evolved from the sweat gland to produce milk, a nutritious secretion that is the most distinctive characteristic of mammals, along with live birth. In mature women, the breast is generally more prominent than in most other mammals; this prominence, not necessary for milk production, is probably at least partially the result of sexual selection. (For other ways in which men commonly differ physically from women, see man.)^{[citation needed]}

During early fetal development, embryos of both sexes appear gender-neutral. As in cases without two sexes, such as species that reproduce asexually, the gender-neutral appearance is closer to female than to male. A fetus usually develops into a male if it is exposed to a significant amount of testosterone (typically because the fetus has a Y chromosome from the father). Otherwise, the fetus usually develops into a female, typically when the fetus has an X chromosome from the father, but also when the father contributed neither an X nor Y chromosome. Later at puberty, estrogen feminizes a young woman, giving her adult sexual characteristics.^{[citation needed]}

An imbalance of maternal hormonal levels and some chemicals (or drugs) may alter the secondary sexual characteristics of fetuses. Most women have the karyotype 46,XX, but around one in a thousand will be 47,XXX, and one in 2500 will be 45,X. This contrasts with the typical male karotype of 46,XY; thus, the X and Y chromosomes are known as female and male, respectively. Because humans inherit mitochondrial DNA only from the mother's ovum, genetic studies of the female line tend to focus on mitochondrial DNA.^{[citation needed]}

Whether or not a child is considered female does not always determine whether or not the child later will identify themselves that way (see gender identity). For instance, intersex individuals, who have mixed physical and/or genetic features, may use other criteria in making a clear determination. At birth, babies may be assigned a gender based on their genitalia. In some cases, even if a child had XX chromosomes, if they were born with a penis, they were raised as a male.^[25]There are also transgender and transsexual women, who were assigned as male at birth, but identify as women; there are varying social, legal, and individual definitions with regard to these issues (see trans woman).^{[citation needed]}

"The Life & Age of Woman - Stages of Woman's Life from the Cradle to the Grave",1849

Although fewer females than males are born (the ratio is around 1:1.05), because of a longer life expectancy there are only 81 men aged 60 or over for every 100 women of the same age. Women typically have a longer life expectancy than men.^[26] This is due to a combination of factors: genetics (redundant and varied genes present on sex chromosomes in women); sociology (such as the fact that women are not expected in most modern nations to perform military service); health-impacting choices (such as suicide or the use of cigarettes, and alcohol); the presence of the female hormone estrogen, which has a cardioprotective effect in premenopausal women; and the effect of high levels of androgens in men. Out of the total human population in 2015, there were 101.8 men for every 100 women.^[27]

Woman nursing her infant

Girls' bodies undergo gradual changes during puberty, analogous to but distinct from those experienced by boys. Puberty is the process of physical changes by which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction to enable fertilisation. It is initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads-either the ovaries or the testes. In response to the signals, the gonads produce hormones that stimulate libido and the growth, function, and transformation of the brain, bones, muscle, blood, skin, hair, breasts, and sexual organs. Physical growth—height and weight—accelerates in the first half of puberty and is completed when the child has developed an adult body. Until the maturation of their reproductive capabilities, the pre-pubertal, physical differences between boys and girls are the genitalia, the penis and the vagina. Puberty is a process that usually takes place between the ages 10–16, but these ages differ from girl to girl. The major landmark of girls' puberty is menarche, the onset of menstruation, which occurs on average between ages 12–13.^{[28][29][30][31]}

Most girls go through menarche and are then able to become pregnant and bear children.^[32] This generally requires internal fertilization of her eggs with the sperm of a man through sexual intercourse, though artificial insemination or the surgical implantation of an existing embryo is also possible (see reproductive technology). The study of female reproduction and reproductive organs is called gynaecology.^[33]

Health

Further information: Women's health and Maternal death

Pregnant woman

Women's health refers to health issues specific to human female anatomy. There are some diseases that primarily affect women, such as lupus. Also, there are some gender-related illnesses that are found more frequently or exclusively in women, e.g., breast cancer, cervical cancer, or ovarian cancer. Women and men may have different symptoms of an illness and may also respond to medical treatment differently. This area of medical research is studied by gender-based medicine.^[34]

The issue of women's health has been taken up by many feminists, especially where reproductive health is concerned. Women's health is positioned within a wider body of knowledge cited by, amongst others, the World Health Organisation, which places importance on gender as a social determinant of health.^[35]

Maternal mortality or maternal death is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes."^[36] About 99% of maternal deaths occur in developing countries. More than half of them occur in sub-Saharan Africa and almost one third in South Asia. The main causes of maternal mortality are severe bleeding (mostly bleeding after childbirth), infections (usually after childbirth), pre-eclampsia and eclampsia, unsafe abortion, and pregnancy complications from malaria and HIV/AIDS.^[37] Most European countries, Australia, as well as Japan and Singapore are very safe in regard to childbirth, while Sub-Saharan countries are the most dangerous.^[38]

Reproductive rights and freedom

A poster from a 1921 eugenics conference displays the U.S. states that had implemented sterilization legislation

Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health. The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics has stated that:^[39]

(...) the human rights of women include their right to have control over and decide freely and responsibly on matters related to their sexuality, including sexual and reproductive health, free of coercion, discrimination and violence. Equal relationships between women and men in matters of sexual relations and reproduction, including full respect for the integrity of the person, require mutual respect, consent and shared responsibility for sexual behavior and its consequences.

Violations of reproductive rights include forced pregnancy, forced sterilization and forced abortion.

Forced sterilization was practiced during the first half of the 20th century by many Western countries. Forced sterilization and forced abortion are reported to be currently practiced in countries such as Uzbekistan and China.^{[40][41][42][43][44][45]}

The lack of adequate laws on sexual violence combined with the lack of access to contraception and/or abortion are a cause of enforced pregnancy (see pregnancy from rape).^{[citation needed]}

Culture and gender roles

Main article: Gender role

A woman weaving. Textile work is traditionally and historically a female occupation in many cultures.

In many prehistoric cultures, women assumed a particular cultural role. In hunter-gatherer societies, women were generally the gatherers of plant foods, small animal foods and fish, while men hunted meat from large animals.^{[citation needed]}

In more recent history, gender roles have changed greatly. Originally, starting at a young age, aspirations occupationally are typically veered towards specific directions according to gender.^[46] Traditionally, middle class women were involved in domestic tasks emphasizing child care. For poorer women, especially working class women, although this often remained an ideal,^[specify]economic necessity compelled them to seek employment outside the home. Many of the occupations that were available to them were lower in pay than those available to men.^{[citation needed]}

As changes in the labor market for women came about, availability of employment changed from only "dirty", long hour factory jobs to "cleaner", more respectable office jobs where more education was demanded, women's participation in the U.S. labor force rose from 6% in 1900 to 23% in 1923. These shifts in the labor force led to changes in the attitudes of women at work, allowing for the revolution which resulted in women becoming career and education oriented.^{[citation needed]}

During World War II, some women performed roles which would otherwise have been considered male jobs by the culture of the time

In the 1970s, many female academics, including scientists, avoided having children. However, throughout the 1980s, institutions tried to equalize conditions for men and women in the workplace. However, the inequalities at home stumped women's opportunities to succeed as far as men. Professional women are still responsible for domestic labor and child care. As people would say, they have a "double burden" which does not allow them the time and energy to succeed in their careers. Furthermore, though there has been an increase in the endorsement of egalitarian gender roles in the home by both women and men, a recent research study showed that women focused on issues of morality, fairness, and well-being, while men focused on social conventions.^[47] Until the early 20th century, U.S. women's colleges required their women faculty members to remain single, on the grounds that a woman could not carry on two full-time professions at once. According to Schiebinger, "Being a scientist and a wife and a mother is a burden in society that expects women more often than men to put family ahead of career." (pg. 93).^[48]

Movements advocate equality of opportunity for both sexes and equal rights irrespective of gender. Through a combination of economic changes and the efforts of the feminist movement,^[specify] in recent decades women in many societies now have access to careers beyond the traditional homemaker.

Although a greater number of women are seeking higher education, salaries are often less than those of men. CBS News claimed in 2005 that in the United States women who are ages 30 to 44 and hold a university degree make 62 percent of what similarly qualified men do, a lower rate than in all but three of the 19 countries for which numbers are available. Some Western nations with greater inequity in pay are Germany, New Zealand and Switzerland.^[49]

Violence against women

Main article: Violence against women

A campaign against female genital mutilation – a road sign near Kapchorwa, Uganda

Burning witches, with others held in Stocks

A young ethnic Chinese woman from one of the Imperial Japanese Army's "comfort battalions" is interviewed by an Allied officer.

The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women defines "violence against women" as:^[50]

any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.

and identifies three forms of such violence: that which occurs in the family, that which occurs within the general community, and that which is perpetrated or condoned by the State. It also states that "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women".^[51]

Violence against women remains a widespread problem, fueled, especially outside the West, by patriarchal social values, lack of adequate laws, and lack of enforcement of existing laws. Social norms that exist in many parts of the world hinder progress towards protecting women from violence. For example, according to surveys by UNICEF, the percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances is as high as 90% in Afghanistan and Jordan, 87% in Mali, 86% in Guinea and Timor-Leste, 81% in Laos, and 80% in the Central African Republic.^[52] A 2010 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center found that stoning as a punishment for adultery was supported by 82% of respondents in Egypt and Pakistan, 70% in Jordan, 56% Nigeria, and 42% in Indonesia.^[53]

Specific forms of violence that affect women include female genital mutilation, sex trafficking, forced prostitution, forced marriage, rape, sexual harassment, honor killings, acid throwing, and dowry related violence. Governments can be complicit in violence against women, for instance through practices such as stoning (as punishment for adultery).

There have also been many forms of violence against women which have been prevalent historically, notably the burning of witches, the sacrifice of widows (such as sati) and foot binding. The prosecution of women accused of witchcraft has a long tradition, for example witch trials in the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries) were common in Europe and in the European colonies in North America. Today, there remain regions of the world (such as parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, rural North India, and Papua New Guinea) where belief in witchcraft is held by many people, and women accused of being witches are subjected to serious violence.^[54][55][56] In addition, there are also countries which have criminal legislation against the practice of witchcraft. In Saudi Arabia, witchcraft remains a crime punishable by death, and in 2011 the country beheaded a woman for 'witchcraft and sorcery'.^[57][58]

It is also the case that certain forms of violence against women have been recognized as criminal offenses only during recent decades, and are not universally prohibited, in that many countries continue to allow them. This is especially the case with marital rape.^[59][60] In the Western World, there has been a trend towards ensuring gender equality within marriage and prosecuting domestic violence, but in many parts of the world women still lose significant legal rights when entering a marriage.^[61]

Sexual violence against women greatly increases during times of war and armed conflict, during military occupation, or ethnic conflicts; most often in the form of war rape and sexual slavery. Contemporary examples of sexual violence during war include rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War, rape in the Bosnian War, rape during the Rwandan Genocide, and rape during Second Congo War. In Colombia, the armed conflict has also resulted in increased sexual violence against women.^[62]

Laws and policies on violence against women vary by jurisdiction. In the European Union, sexual harassment and human trafficking are subject to directives.^[63][64]

Clothing, fashion and dress codes

Further information: Fashion, Modesty, and Hijab by country

Afghan women wearing burqas. Some Muslim women wear hijabs and other types of clothing as a symbol of modesty and privacy.

Women in different parts of the world dress in different ways, with their choices of clothing being influenced by local culture, religious tenets traditions, social norms, and fashion trends, amongst other factors. Different societies have different ideas about modesty. However, in many jurisdictions, women's choices in regard to dress are not always free, with laws limiting what they may or may not wear. This is especially the case in regard to Islamic dress. While certain jurisdictions legally mandate such clothing (the wearing of the headscarf), other countries forbid or restrict the wearing of certain hijab attire (such as burqa/covering the face) in public places (one such country is France - see French ban on face covering). These laws are highly controversial.^[65]

Fertility and family life

Further information: Mother

A world map showing countries by total fertility rate (TFR), according to the CIA World Factbook's 2015 data.

7–8 Children   6–7 Children   5–6 Children   4–5 Children

3–4 Children   2–3 Children   1–2 Children   0–1 Children

Percentage of births to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007.^[66]

The total fertility rate (TFR) - the average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime - differs significantly between different regions of the world. In 2013, the highest estimated TFR was in Niger (7.03 children born per woman) and the lowest in Singapore (0.79 children/woman).^[67] While most Sub-Saharan African countries have a high TFR, which creates problems due to lack of resources and contributes to overpopulation, most Western countries currently experience a sub replacement fertility rate which may lead to population ageing and population decline.

In many parts of the world, there has been a change in family structure over the past few decades. For instance, in the West, there has been a trend of moving away from living arrangements that include the extended family to those which only consist of the nuclear family. There has also been a trend to move from marital fertility to non-marital fertility. Children born outside marriage may be born to cohabiting couples or to single women. While births outside marriage are common and fully accepted in some parts of the world, in other places they are highly stigmatized, with unmarried mothers facing ostracism, including violence from family members, and in extreme cases even honor killings.^[68][69]In addition, sex outside marriage remains illegal in many countries (such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan,^[70] Afghanistan,^[71][72] Iran,^[72] Kuwait,^[73] Maldives,^[74]Morocco,^[75] Oman,^[76] Mauritania,^[77] United Arab Emirates,^[78][79] Sudan,^[80] and Yemen^[81]).

The social role of the mother differs between cultures. In many parts of the world, women with dependent children are expected to stay at home and dedicate all their energy to child raising, while in other places (mostly in Western countries) mothers most often return to paid work (see working mother and stay-at-home mother).

Religion

Further information: Women in Christianity, Women in Judaism, Women in Islam, Women in Mormonism, Women in Hinduism, Women in Sikhism, and Women in Buddhism

Particular religious doctrines have specific stipulations relating to gender roles, social and private interaction between the sexes, appropriate dressing attire for women, and various other issues affecting women and their position in society. In many countries, these religious teachings influence the criminal law, or the family law of those jurisdictions (see Sharia law, for example). The relation between religion, law and gender equality has been discussed by international organizations.^[82]

Education

Main article: Female education

Female education includes areas of gender equality and access to education, and its connection to the alleviation of poverty. Also involved are the issues of single-sex education and religious education in that the division of education along gender lines as well as religious teachings on education have been traditionally dominant and are still highly relevant in contemporary discussions of educating females as a global consideration.

While the feminist movement has certainly promoted the importance of the issues attached to female education the discussion is wide-ranging and by no means narrowly defined. It may include, for example, HIV/AIDS education.^[1]Universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries. In some Western countries, women have surpassed men at many levels of education. For example, in the United States in 2005/2006, women earned 62% of associate degrees, 58% of bachelor's degrees, 60% of master's degrees, and 50% of doctorates.^[2]

Women attending an adult literacy class in the El Alto section of La Paz, Bolivia

A female biologist weighs a desert tortoise before release

Literacy

Main article: Literacy

World literacy is lower for females than for males. The CIA World Factbook presents an estimate from 2010 which shows that 80% of women are literate, compared to 88.6% of men (aged 15 and over). Literacy rates are lowest in South and West Asia, and in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa.^[83]

OECD countries

Education

The educational gender gap in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries has been reduced over the last 30 years. Younger women today are far more likely to have completed a tertiary qualification: in 19 of the 30 OECD countries, more than twice as many women aged 25 to 34 have completed tertiary education than have women aged 55 to 64. In 21 of 27 OECD countries with comparable data, the number of women graduating from university-level programmes is equal to or exceeds that of men. 15-year-old girls tend to show much higher expectations for their careers than boys of the same age.^[84] While women account for more than half of university graduates in several OECD countries, they receive only 30% of tertiary degrees granted in science and engineering fields, and women account for only 25% to 35% of researchers in most OECD countries.^[85]

There is a common misconception that women have still not advanced in achieving academic degrees. According to Margaret Rossiter, a historian of science, women now earn 54 percent of all bachelor's degrees in the United States. However, although there are more women holding bachelor's degrees than men, as the level of education increases, the more men tend to fit the statistics^{[clarification needed]} instead of women. At the graduate level, women fill 40 percent of the doctorate degrees (31 percent of them being in engineering).^[86]

While to this day women are studying at prestigious universities at the same rate as men,^{[clarification needed]} they are not being given the same chance to join faculty. Sociologist Harriet Zuckerman has observed that the more prestigious an institute is, the more difficult and time-consuming it will be for women to obtain a faculty position there. In 1989, Harvard University tenured its first woman in chemistry, Cynthia Friend, and in 1992 its first woman in physics, Melissa Franklin. She also observed that women were more likely to hold their first professional positions as instructors and lecturers while men are more likely to work first in tenure positions. According to Smith and Tang, as of 1989, 65 percent of men and only 40 percent of women held tenured positions and only 29 percent of all scientists and engineers employed as assistant professors in four-year colleges and universities were women.^[87]

Jobs

In 1992, women earned 9 percent of the PhDs awarded in engineering, but only one percent of those women became professors.^{[citation needed]} In 1995, 11 percent of professors in science and engineering were women. In relation, only 311 deans of engineering schools were women, which is less than 1 percent of the total. Even in psychology, a degree in which women earn the majority of PhDs, they hold a significant amount of fewer tenured positions, roughly 19 percent in 1994.^[88]

Women in politics

A world map showing female governmental participation by country, 2010

Angela Merkel has earned the top spot on the FORBES list of Most Powerful Women In The World for 8 of the past 10 years^[89]

Women are underrepresented in government in most countries. In October 2013, the global average of women in national assemblies was 22%.^[90] Suffrage is the civil right to vote. Women's suffrage in the United States was achieved gradually, first at state and local levels, starting in the late 19th century and early 20th century, and in 1920 women in the US received universal suffrage, with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Some Western countries were slow to allow women to vote; notably Switzerland, where women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971, and in the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden women were granted the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland;^[91][92] and Liechtenstein, in 1984, through a women's suffrage referendum.

Science, literature and art

German composer Clara Schumann in 1878

Women have, throughout history, made contributions to science, literature and art. One area where women have been permitted most access historically was that of obstetrics and gynecology (prior to the 18th century, caring for pregnant women in Europe was undertaken by women; from the mid 18th century onwards medical monitoring of pregnant women started to require rigorous formal education, to which women did not generally have access, therefore the practice was largely transferred to men).^[93][94]

Writing was generally also considered acceptable for upper class women, although achieving success as a female writer in a male dominated world could be very difficult; as a result several women writers adopted a male pen name (e.g. George Sand, George Eliot).^{[citation needed]}

Women have been composers, songwriters, instrumental performers, singers, conductors, music scholars, music educators, music critics/music journalists and other musical professions. There are music movements, events and genres related to women, women's issues and feminism. In the 2010s, while women comprise a significant proportion of popular music and classical music singers, and a significant proportion of songwriters (many of them being singer-songwriters), there are few women record producers, rock critics and rock instrumentalists. Although there have been a huge number of women composers in classical music, from the Medieval period to the present day, women composers are significantly underrepresented in the commonly performed classical music repertoire, music history textbooks and music encyclopedias; for example, in the Concise Oxford History of Music, Clara Schumann is one of the only female composers who is mentioned.

Women comprise a significant proportion of instrumental soloists in classical music and the percentage of women in orchestras is increasing. A 2015 article on concerto soloists in major Canadian orchestras, however, indicated that 84% of the soloists with the Orchestre Symphonique de Montreal were men. In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the top-ranked Vienna Philharmonic orchestra. Women are less common as instrumental players in popular music genres such as rock and heavy metal, although there have been a number of notable female instrumentalists and all-female bands. Women are particularly underrepresented in extreme metal genres.^[95] Women are also underrepresented in orchestral conducting, music criticism/music journalism, music producing, and sound engineering. While women were discouraged from composing in the 19th century, and there are few women musicologists, women became involved in music education "... to such a degree that women dominated [this field] during the later half of the 19th century and well into the 20th century."^[96]

According to Jessica Duchen, a music writer for London's The Independent, women musicians in classical music are "... too often judged for their appearances, rather than their talent" and they face pressure "... to look sexy onstage and in photos."^[97] Duchen states that while "[t]here are women musicians who refuse to play on their looks, ... the ones who do tend to be more materially successful."^[97]

According to the UK's Radio 3 editor, Edwina Wolstencroft, the classical music industry has long been open to having women in performance or entertainment roles, but women are much less likely to have positions of authority, such as being the leader of an orchestra.^[98] In popular music, while there are many women singers recording songs, there are very few women behind the audio console acting as music producers, the individuals who direct and manage the recording process.^[99]